GEOGRAPHY
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 5.0
INDEX:
Page:
I.
Abstract 3
II.
Preamble 3
III.
Component
Initiative 4
IV.
Component
Course Materials 5
V.
Instructional
Strategy 6
VI.
Student
Activities 6
VII.
Assessment
Method 7
VIII.
Common
Essential Learnings 8
IX.
Environment 9
X.
Materials
and Resources 9
XI.
Course
Text
Introduction 11
1.0 Five Modes of Understanding 13
2.0 Topography / Soil 19
3.0 Orientation 24
4.0 Solar Orientation 27
5.0 Wind & Water Elements 32
6.0 Urban Design 41
·
City
Planning Models 41
·
Energy
and Environmental Design 46
·
Civic
Environmental Design 50
XII. New
Text Definitions 59
XIII. Appendix
'A': List of Illustrations 60
XIV. Appendix
'B': Bibliography 63
ABSTRACT:
The
site of a structure plays as important a role as the actual design. Siting involves the contextual aspect of
architectural design, bringing with it elements of time, cosmic aesthetic,
special enclosure, and natural forces that contribute to the final product.
The
study of geography bears the influence of place upon successful resolution
within architectural design.
PREAMBLE:
The
manner through which architectural design responds to its “place” will either
enhance or destabilize the solution with regard to our perceptions.
Contextuality,
orientation, response to land forms, as well as technical aspects of
construction will provide for a positive overall experience felt by the users
of a completed design.
The
design ideology or theory base of the architect has a very strong role in the
manner that a design responds to its site and natural elements. Responses that control or alter site have
been implemented throughout the history of architectural design, most recently
in the cases of Modernism and Eclecticism theories. Architectural responses that meld with the
geography and landscape are also finding place in the mainstream design
theories, using the site to enhance and augment the personal experience.
The
potential impact and influences of the environment (rural or urban), combined
with the forces of nature and the existing landscape (terrain and soil type),
create the earthly response that the design solution will promote.
COMPONENT INITIATIVE:
The
goal of this section is to provide the means through which students can gain a
better understanding of the geographical influences affecting an architectural
design process.
This
section covers the earth form typology as well as aspects of natural forces
noting their potential impact on the design.
Urban
planning criteria contribute a large amount of this section’s curriculum. The goal here is to educate the students
relative to design parameters and influences outside of the immediate design
site, bringing in the theoretical concepts that align with architectural design
concepts within a successful solution.
Figure 1: Boboli Gardens, Florence,
Italy
COMPONENT COURSE MATERIALS:
The
component course materials for this section reflect the diverse nature of the
intended curriculum. The essence of
siting a building has as much to do with the actual site as it does with the
esoteric aspects of the natural environment.
The manner by which we move through and around our environment is
controlled by the aspects of geography/geology in the way that the natural
environment has been either altered or enhanced by the presence of the design
solution.
The
materials within this section delve into two main elements of geography – the
technical aspects and the atmospheric/intangible aspects. Technical aspects were noted within the
original proposal brief to include land forms/topography, soil types,
orientation, and wind & water elements.
These items are reviewed as individual aspects of design as well as a
group of elements which interplay relative to the design solution.
The
atmospheric elements are those intangibles which provide a hidden influence on
the design solution. Theoretical
constructs such as time, place, and cosmic influences comprise these
elements. The elements are also made up
of land usage (our impact on the environment), contextuality, relationship to
the street or traffic, and relationship of the site area to the building
itself.
In
this manner, we will be able to see the means by which architectural design
solutions successfully fit within the geographical context.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY:
§
Direct Instruction
§
Lecture
series with written material handouts.
§
Slide/visual
presentation of site types, influences, and solutions.
§
Indirect Instruction
§
Lectures
by visiting professionals.
§
Field
trips to geographic locations.
§
Independent Study
§
Student
research on siting locations.
§
Student
study on natural forces related to site design.
§
Interactive Instruction
§
Lab
studies of soil types, consistencies, and reactions.
§
Lab
studies on influence of natural forces (wind tunnel and rain-screen testing).
STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
§
Oral
§
Presentation
on geographical studies.
§
Presentation
on researched contextual solutions.
§
Class
discussion on geographical influences.
§
Visual
§
Site
study designs and illustrations.
§
Graphics
related to context and topography.
§
Kinesthetic
§
Lab
work relative to land materials.
§
Field
tours and site trips.
§
Written
§
Report
preparation on site studies and existing geographical analyses.
ASSESSMENT METHOD:
§
Pencil & Paper Method
§
Written
testing – natural forces, soil types.
§
Research
submissions.
§
Graphic
submissions on contextual studies.
§
Performance Assessments
§
Participation
in class discussion.
§
Participation
in site tours.
§
Group
project interaction.
§
Personal Assessments
§
Greater
awareness of environment and influences of natural forces on design.
§
Personal
awareness of scope of environment within urban and rural concepts.
Figure 2: Los Angeles, USA (1920)
COMMON ESSENTIAL LEARNINGS:
§
Communication
§
New
terminology and definitions.
§
Communication
techniques relative to environmental influences.
§
Creative and Critical Thinking
§
Understanding
the environment as a technical element as well as a theoretical influence on
design.
§
Ability
to analyze environmental factors relative to potential design solutions.
§
Independent Learning
§
Research
and written analyses.
§
Independent
study of established applications.
§
Numeracy
§
Site
surveying technology, including application of mathematics for topography
analysis.
§
Mathematical
analysis of solar and wind influences on design solutions.
§
Technological Literacy
§
Understanding
of soil types, materials, and methods of technical solutions (combined with
science of buildings curriculum).
§
Understanding
of urban design concepts relative to land efficiency and urban planning.
§
Personal Social Values and Skills
§
Group
project activities.
§
Response
to environmental variables and emotional aspects of site design.
ENVIRONMENT:
§
Classroom Climate
§
Visual
access for lecture and presentation.
§
Open
area for lab demonstrations and student activities.
§
Physical Setting
§
Classroom
setting / lecture style for direct instruction.
§
Lab
setting for student interaction during modeling and testing stages.
§
Exterior
land forms for interactive instruction.
§
Flexible Student Groupings
§
Student
groupings for research assignments into land forms and contextual solutions.
§
Student
groupings for lab research and testing activities.
§
Extensions Beyond Classroom Setting
§
Exterior
analysis of natural settings and forces acting in and around building
solutions.
§
Contextual
design studies of existing developments.
§
Community Experiences
§
Site
trips to developed areas to review and analyze solutions.
§
Site
trips to under-developed or natural landscape area to analyze forces and
materials in situ.
MATERIALS / RESOURCES REQUIRED:
§
In-Room Supplies
§
Audio-visual
resources.
§
Lab
equipment for testing (wind, moisture).
§
Soil
samples for testing.
§
Research
stations for independent and group work.
§
External Supplies
§
Access
to site areas, both developed and pristine, for student study.
§
Access
to land form variations within the local environment (valleys, plains, lakes).
COURSE TEXT
INTRODUCTION
The
influence of geography/geology is developed in two streams within this
section. The original proposal summary
noted key points of influence relative to land and environment, including:
1. Land Forms / Topography:
A review of local site types (woodland, river, lake, prairie), and the
effect upon potential design solutions.
Figure 3: Great Smokey Mountains National Park, North
Carolina, USA
2. Soil Types:
Influence on design solution of various soil conditions (structural in
nature). Influence on design solution
relative to the contextual nature of the proposed site (mountainous, bedrock,
topsoil).
3. Orientation (Views/Vistas): The use of orientation as a principle for
design resolution. Views to take
advantage of natural vistas, building orientation and integration of exterior
elements with a design solution.
Figure 4: Landscaping and Climate
4. Wind and Water Elements: Wind elements related to orientation and
topography. The use of wind to facilitate building systems. Design of building forms to respect wind
patterns and climatic affects of the science area.
The
overall curriculum of this section has been augmented through the inclusion of
urban planning criteria relative to building and city planning. This inclusion has been completed in an
effort to fully encompass the natural and contextual elements that influence
potential design solutions. Urban planning
design criteria that has been incorporated into the curriculum includes:
1. Urban
Development: Study of city planning,
growth, and usage relative to the environment.
2. Site / Building Layout: orientation aspects that relate to solar
efficiency and energy conservation.
3. Landscaping: influences of landscaping relative to soil
conditions and natural forces, as well as individual use of the site.
4. Transportation: cost-effective and energy conservation
techniques relative to urban design criteria.
Figure 5: Jasper, Alberta (2003)
The
societal value of a building is calculated with regard to the architectural
design. The architectural design
incorporates the technical aspects of construction but also the sociological
concepts of social setting, site development, location, and responsiveness to
the environment. There is an inherent
link between the structure and its site that can be viewed as distinct, though
site contributes to the potential success of a design.
The
basic elements in the relationship between building and site are noted in the
‘Introduction’ as natural elements consisting of:
§
land
forms / topography;
§
soil
types;
§
orientation;
and
§
wind
and water elements.
Land Forms
Land
forms allow for the true creativity of architectural design. Design is, in one respect, replication of
land forms through the analogy of house to cave. Architectural design encloses the existing
space present on the land form, in a manner suitable to the intended use. Architectural design does not create new
space; it merely adjusts the space that previously existed by enclosing it.
This
explanation appears rather far-reaching and theoretical. It does, however,
relate directly to the aspect of architectural design that deals with creation
of structures within our given world.
The
essence of land form analysis doesn’t stop at the ground level. It encompasses the entire experience of a
site location relative to the architect, client, and potential occupant of the
design. The encompassing explanation of
elements stated by Christian Norberg-Schulz is contained in the text “Genus
Loci – Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture”.
1.0 Five Modes of
Understanding
C.
Norberg-Schulz notes that our environment consists of individual elements, each
created with its own place. Place is the
total of all visible and tangible elements (materials, shape, texture, colour,
size) that determine the environmental character. The structure of “place” incorporates the
three-dimensional organization of space which has an atmosphere denoted by the
characteristic properties of all elements combined.
This
theory relative to land forms takes on a different dimension since it is
removed from our known physical realities of site, soil, sun, and natural
forces. The concept of resolving
architectural design relative to land forms does involve the nature of this
theory in order to aesthetically as well as technically resolve a design
problem.
Figure 6: Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain,
England
The
phenomenon of place requires an understanding of the human existence between
heaven and earth. To be able to
understand involves knowledge of the experience of meaning within our
environment. This knowledge of
experience of meaning is specific to each culture/society as is reviewed in
Section 4.0, Sociology and Architecture.
Meaning within any given culture relative to the specific land elements
can be traced to its belief system that incorporates elements of the five modes
of understanding.
The
five modes (methods or concepts) of understanding proposed in Genus Loci include:
(1) Thing: relates to the tangible collection of site
elements (rocks, soil, vegetation) and creates the understanding of this
collection as an entity unto itself – Stonehenge is an entity made up of the
elements of its location and structure, thereby classified as a “thing’ in this
definition. Meaningful places,
collections of things, make the life of the coherent civilization possible.
(2) Order: Order consists of the heavenly influence (a
cosmic influence) related to the local geographic structure. The relationship of the cosmic to the
concrete (land forms) creates an accepted structure of the “place”; a union of
earth and sky (cosmos) to define an order.
(3) Character: relates to the definition of natural
elements, relating them to human traits.
This aspect is commonly referred to as assigning characteristics to
inanimate objects. The assignment of
human characteristics to natural elements creates an understanding of the land
form and location.
(4) Light: Light is symbolic within our civilization as
being a positive element, source of inspiration, and related to the heavens
through the religious overtones applied to the presence of light. An understanding of the forces and nature of
light relative to the land forms (duration, intensity, clarity) will provide
for a more resolved design solution.
Light is, however, temporary as it changes throughout the day and over
the seasons. It is inherently connected
with the rhythms of nature through the seasons.
(5) Time: Time incorporates the rhythm of our existence
as we move in and around our chosen spaces.
The element of time, like that of light, is in a constant state of
movement, always changing but never repeating.
These two latter elements clearly reflect the existence of civilization
on earth, though the presence of the land (earth) remains a constant.
These
five modes of understanding are essential to facilitate a full understanding of
the land forms present in an architectural design solution. These five modes relate to the original
theory of dwelling between earth and sky through the classification as follows:
·
Earthly
aspects are characterized by the elements found in the modes of ‘Thing’ and
‘Character’. These modes relate to the
physical aspects of land forms and natural elements.
·
Heavenly
(sky) aspects are characterized by the elements found in the modes of ‘Order’
and ‘Light’. These modes relate to the
cosmic influences felt upon a particular site area or region.
·
‘Time’
is the mode assigned to neither heaven nor earth since time is both
ever-changing (as the heavens) and constant in its progress (the constant relating
to earth). Time is also that element
that is assigned to the specific period of civilization relative to the
architectural practices.
Figure 7: G. Pompidou Centre, Paris, France (1973)
Section
1.0 – Architectural History of Western Civilization illustrates the changes in
design over time within a given geographical region. Neither the earthly nor the heavenly aspects
of the land forms within a given region have changed, yet architectural design
has progressed over time.
The
combinations and influences of these modes relative to place have been
essential in the architectural design of those works considered as
achievements.
Figure 8: Fallingwater, Racine, Wisconsin (1936)
Frank
Lloyd Wright’s design solution for Falling Water (Racine, Wisconsin) is a prime
example of place with considerations to all the influential factors of land
definitions noted. The structure rests
as a part of the landscape yet distinct, as well as provides integration
between the interior and exterior.
Figure 9: Integration to Exterior
Though
a full descriptive analysis of major works exceeds the nature of this
curriculum, other examples can be found in every location of design:
§
Swiss
houses nestled into the hillside reflect the cultural values and spirit of
their time as well as integrate with their place
Figure 10: Lac Biernsee, Interlaken, Switzerland
.
§
The
work of Douglas Cardinal, as seen in both the Museum of Civilization (Ottawa)
and the First Nations University of Canada (Regina), reflects his philosophy of
nature, culture and form relative to architecture design. This philosophy stems from his ancestral
relationship with earth, sky, and natural forces to create an architectural
resolution symbolic of our landscapes.
Figure 11: Museum of Civilization, Ottawa, Ontario
These
are merely three examples of geographic/geological influences (site) on the
process of architectural design. The
five criteria noted in the relationship between cosmic, physical, and temporal
realities will exist in some form in every architectural resolution. It is through varied interplay of these
elements, given the changing nature of different landscapes, time, spatial
qualities, and cultural influences that architectural design theory will find
new ways to resolve the challenges posed.
Figure 12: Tuscany Landscape, Florence,
Italy
Geography/geology
is combined with all other elements of the curriculum to produce the
architectural resolutions for each design problem. Landscapes may bear similarities in scope and
texture, yet are completely different in their resolution of architectural design
due to the other influences.
Figure 13: Lumsden, Saskatchewan
2.0 Topography and Soils
Figure 14: Saskatchewan Map
The
topography (land slopes) of any given site bears an influence on the
architectural solution as well.
Saskatchewan, as an entity, is considered flat when in fact over half of
the province’s land area is lakes and forest.
The City of Prince Albert, considered to be Northern Saskatchewan, is
actually near the geographical centre of the province. The southern half of the province as a whole
is far from flat, as is indicated by visible land forms photographed in
winter. The solutions for prairie
architecture remain as varied as the landscape and every specific location
which creates its own definition of “Place”.
Figure 15: South-West Saskatchewan
(Winter 2003)
Soil Types
Soil
types bear a great deal of influence on the structural nature of the
architectural design, being more technical in nature. The various structural systems (foundations
specifically) are reviewed in Section 2.0 - Science of Buildings.
The
ways in which soil type and consistency will influence the intended design
solution stem from the structural stability (determining potential building
height and mass) as well as the aesthetic resolution. The soil type forms the basis of the
landscape, presenting opportunities for design resolution either in keeping or
in contrast with the existing environment.
This item is closely linked to the aforementioned land forms and
definition of place.
Landforms
created through the soil definition can be classified according to the
topography and the impact of moisture on the surface and sub-surface
conditions. A brief summary of landform
classifications includes:
(1) Flood Plain: The lowest land area relative to water
accumulation. This area would be subject
to flooding easily. These areas are
typically restricted to little or no development.
(2) Alluvial Fan Area: This land area is immediately adjacent the
flood plain zone. This area is often subject to heavy moisture concentration as
the bulk of draining water (heading for the flood plan) drains over it. Erosion is heavy on the soil surface. The depth of moisture penetration is often
extreme. These areas are typically
limited to select development types only.
(3) Uplands: This land area is above the Alluvial Fan
zone, shedding moisture easily.
Depending on the soil type, development is often permitted in these
areas. The control of runoff is a
serious consideration within developed zones.
(4) Low Uplands: This land area comprises the depressions
found within the Upland zones.
Development is controlled in these areas due to the presence of runoff
that can quickly accumulate, making the soil soft and undesirable.
(5) Hillside: Hillside areas drain well, although they are
often subject to deep erosion, causing instability in the soil surface. These
areas may be subject to slippage depending on the season and precipitation
levels. Development is controlled in
these areas due to the erosion and slippage concerns.
(6) Ridge and Highlands: These areas generally provide well-drained
soil conditions with low erosion concerns.
These areas are considered the best building sites available.
Soil Erosion:
Erosion
of the soil and sub-surface caused by water runoff is a critical concern due to
the deterioration that can be created.
As the topsoil is eliminated, water absorption is increased in the
sub-soils which may affect swelling and damage to the foundations. (Refer to Section 2.0, Science of
Buildings). Wind erosion is a concern on
open prairie landscapes but not considered critical in the urban areas.
Figure 16: Raindrop Impact on Soil
Water
erosion removes soil by mixing with the materials as the rain strikes, creating
a light density mud mix. These soil
elements are then transported through the runoff to the lowest available land
point.
Erosion
of the soil and sub-surface elements is increased depending on the land slopes
(topography) and consistency of the soil.
Newly placed soil in construction/development areas is particularly
sensitive to erosion as there has been little compaction of the soil, keeping
it loose and subject to run-off. The
topography slopes can be categorized as:
Figure 17: Slope types and fill in
developments
Four
types of runoff erosion may occur on site, depending on the precipitation
intensity and density of the soil types. The erosion types are:
(1) Sheet Erosion – removes the entire
soft top level of soil in one wash-off.
(2) Rill (Trough) Erosion – removes
soft pockets in the soil and subsoil, creating pockets and creases down the
slopes.
(3) Gully Erosion – rill erosion that
has increased in size and scope to carve out a large slash through the
hillside.
(4) Slip Erosion – the most
catastrophic type of erosion. Water
penetration accumulates in the soft subsoil layer, creating a massive single
movement of soil. This type represents
the “mud slides” that remove the sides from hills and slopes in a single
effort. The power of this slide type may
be extreme, causing great damage.
Figure 18: Sheet Erosion after Excavation
Erosion
and control techniques are frequently used to minimize the overall impact of
surface water. Landscaping elements are
the simplest means to control erosion by their actions above and below the soil
surface.
Figure 19: Landscape Slope Elements
Landscaping
provides control by:
§
breaking
the velocity of water down as the leaves and branches act as canopies and
diffusers;
§
solidifying
the subsoil through their root systems; and
§
dead
leaves and plant parts mix with the topsoil, loosening it and creating capacity
for increased absorption, thus minimizing the runoff.
Other
methods of erosion control include retaining walls, erosion bars and runoff
control methods through culverts and storm channel drains.
Figure 20: Hillside Retaining Wall
System
3.0 Orientation
Orientation
of a design solution references the key or critical direction that the building
is to face. In some cases, such as urban
infill or downtown redevelopment, the choices to vary the orientation of the
building’s main façade are limited. It is
possible to use orientation of building elements (doors, windows, balconies,
roof slopes) to enhance the design and provide a means of environmental
control.
Figure 21: Roman Orientation
The
basic orientation desired for most structures is south to take advantage of our
climatic exposure to the sun. There is
no clear, black-and-white solution to orientation due to the many factors that
interact in determining the site design aspects.
Figure 22: Orientation Considerations (Vitruvius)
The examples noted below illustrate
the complexity of our climatic southern exposure:
§
Solar
exposure in the winter months assists in lowering the mechanical heating load.
§
Solar
exposure in the summer months may increase the mechanical cooling load.
§
Southern
exposure will expose the structure to the cooler summer winds, but the design
must reflect this opportunity to incorporate the wind pattern into the site
areas.
§
Landscaping
may be installed in the form of deciduous trees to provide summer shade
(lessening the solar impact).
§
Deciduous
trees lose their leaves in winter, thereby allowing full solar access to the
structure.
§
Landscaping
may, however, serve as a windbreak relative to the intended capturing of summer
breezes. This landscaping (trees and
potential ground cover) will require careful design considerations in order to
allow summer winds through or around while still providing the intended shade
element.
Figure 23: Orientation and Landscaping
The
relationship of architectural design to site concepts (orientation, wind,
water) is clearly a complex problem that requires as much consideration as the
design elements themselves. The examples
noted herein are merely a cursory review of some considerations present in
orientation. These considerations may be
discarded in the case of a client who wishes to paint canvases in a studio
providing nothing but the soft natural light of the northern side. This one
contradiction would then provide its own set of orientation and siting
considerations, from a different point of view than illustrated earlier.
Figure 24: Place des Vosges, Paris, France
Orientation
plays a role in siting the intended design when considering the additional
activities or site elements to be included in the design solution. The architectural design process must step
away from the immediate building to consider the land area and actions
involved. This process includes parking,
mass-transportation, pedestrian access, landscaping, site features, and the
potential adjacent structures (existing or proposed). The elements discussed with respect to
orientation carry significant impact on all of the site elements, individually
and as a component of the overall design solution.
4.0 Solar Orientation
Figure 25: Solar Skyspace / Travel Considerations
Solar
orientation refers to the altitude and azimuth of the sun during the
seasons. The altitude angle is the angle
above the horizon line immediately below the sun’s position. The azimuth angle is the sun’s position
horizontally, measured clockwise from north, as it travels from east to
west. These two angles combine to
provide the exact location of the sun, allowing a response within the
architectural design process to take advantage or counteract the solar
influence.
Figure 26: Altitude / Azimuth Locations
The
contextual data for Regina provides us with the following readings:
1) Summer solstice: the longest day of the year, with the highest
solar angles.
·
Sunrise: Alt:
1.2o
Az: 52.6o
Time: 3:00 a.m.
§
Sunset: Alt: 1.3o
Az: 307.3o
Time: 19:10 p.m.
§
Peak
height: Alt: 62.9o
Az: 179.8o
Time: 11:00 a.m.
2) Winter solstice: the shortest day of the year with the lowest
solar angles.
§
Sunrise: Alt: 0.1o
Az: 128.0o
Time: 7:00 a.m.
§
Sunset: Alt: 2.7o
Az: 227.4o
Time: 14:30 p.m.
§
Peak
height: Alt: 16.1o
Az: 180.8o
Time: 11:00 a.m.
By
this simple comparison, we can establish that for Regina, the sun is
approximately 46.8 degrees lower in altitude, travels approximately 155o
less across the horizon, and shines approximately 8.5 less hours at winter
solstice than summer solstice. All other
solar angles and paths of travel occur between these two extremes.
Orientation
of site elements and structure must take into account these influences during
the seasons in order to respond to the natural solar force present. Orientation is also crucial with regard to
the items reviewed within Section 2.0, Science of Buildings. The temperature extremes and exposure of
building materials has a major influence on how the structure moves with regard
to thermal properties of the materials.
Solar and wind orientation have an effect on the occupancy of the design
as well as the intended lifespan of the building’s components. The materials discussion was completed within
Section 2.0 and may be reviewed relative to geographic orientation.
Figure 27: Solar Considerations
Orientation
also plays a role in the appearance of the design from both the exterior and
interior. The approach to the structure,
views presented, and means of exposure will influence the experience of the
user. The interior views will have an
equal influence on the occupants of the facility, on an ongoing basis
throughout their time there.
Figure 28: Scarth Street Dining
Architectural
design cannot exist in a vacuum, sealed away from the influences of site
elements (orientation, natural forces).
A critical element that is considered during the design process is the
potential exposure of both spaces (interior and exterior) as they relate to
each other. Architectural design is
required to go beyond the immediate confines of the structure to include the
site elements, views available from within, and appearance from the exterior. A properly resolved design solution provides
for each aspect to the best of the available opportunities.
This
design requirement takes into consideration the space (site) around that which
is enclosed (building) in order to meld building to site. It is the process of sharing, to bring the
exterior in while extending the interior out.
In some cases, this process may require modifications at the ground
floor level in order to eliminate the building’s affect (presence on the site). This design resolution creates a compromise
of available floor space with the positive result of integration with the site.
Figure 29: St. Peter's Square, Rome, Italy
The
use of site orientation and exterior enclosure is evident in courtyards and
plazas within the urban environment, dating back to the Roman period when the
approach to a structure was a prime consideration. St. Peter’s Square in Rome (completed during
the Renaissance/Baroque periods), illustrates the example of enclosing a site
to enhance the overall experience of the design of St. Peter’s itself.
5.0 Wind & Water
Elements
Wind
elements are an important part of architectural design. Our climate, especially in Saskatchewan,
features an abundance of wind currents throughout all of the seasons.
Figure 30: Prairie Landscape
The
‘Science of Buildings’ curriculum noted the powerful influences that wind can
have on the built environment. Pressures
caused by thrust or negative suction can effectively pull a structure
apart. Designing for wind carries the
structural concern at its base point in the process. Wind considerations were prevalent even
during the time of Vitruvius as indicated by his chart of wind orientations.
Figure 31: Vitruvian Wind Orientation
Diagram
Designing
for wind effects must consider the major directional sources for each of the
seasonal wind patterns. Our climatic
atmosphere provides winter winds (cold and dry) affecting structures from the
northwest direction. Summer winds
(cooling and moist) generally approach from the southeast, directionally
opposite to the winter wind patterns.
The opportunities to capitalize on these wind patterns are such that
they can provide a cooling element to serve the building function through the
summer months, while an effective means to block or deflect the winter winds
from the structure’s entry points must be designed. In essence, the design may wish to allow
summer winds and block winter winds.
Figure 32: Wind Orientation
New
design technologies are creating ways to use the natural wind patterns to
assist in air movement throughout a structure, thereby lowering energy usage of
the mechanical ventilation system. This
technology stems from the basic idea that if you are hot, open the window; if
cold, close it. Operable windows won’t
provide the desired breeze (cooling effect) if their orientation is on the
negative side of the wind pattern. This
act may in fact draw air through the interior area, bringing odours and
moisture to exit out the open window. Operable
windows are also quite limited in vertical range (high-rise developments) due
to the atmospheric pressures present both inside and outside a building shell.
The
new technology uses the established wind patterns to create negative pressures
at the top of a building, which are offset by positive pressures at the
base. In this fashion, the wind element
acts as a natural ventilation system; entering at the base, moving air
vertically through the building (in a controllable fashion), and exiting as
exhaust at the top. This new technology
requires a respect of the existing site wind patterns in order to achieve its
goal of using wind to lower the mechanical requirements.
Figure 33: Eco-Tower, London, England
(T.R. Hamzah & Yeang Architects)
Respecting
wind patterns is a basic requirement of architectural design. New structures or major renovations to the
exterior of existing ones within the downtown cores of cities are subjected to
wind tunnel testing. This testing is
completed to monitor the overall affect that the intended design will have on
the wind patterns at the pedestrian level.
Too much change in the patterns may create wind tunnels, resulting in an
uncomfortable atmosphere which discourages pedestrians in that area. A lack of pedestrians results in the eminent
closure of retail and food service establishments that depend on these walk-in
clients. Closure of business activities
often results in a domino affect, eventually leading to a wasteland state of
the wind tunnel area. This analogy may
seem a little to the extreme, however it does illustrate low the affects of
wind can change the social fabric of certain areas.
Figure 34: Wind Tunnel Testing
Figure 35: Primary Wind Control
Winds
can be controlled or modified in ways that provide a more suitable environment.
§
Modifications
to the land forms near or adjacent a new structure can assist in deflection or
lower the overall impact on the structure.
§
Wind
blocks such as retaining walls can be constructed at key locations to deflect
and redirect the wind flow away from the structure (especially the entrance
area).
§
Landscaping
(trees and shrubs) will aid in breaking the wind force down which lowers its
overall impact once it reaches the structure.
Figure 36: Landform/Landscaping
Protection
These
examples speak towards resolution of the undesirable wind’s presence related to
the building’s site. Equal and opposite
affects can be achieved in using each of these elements to enhance and redirect
cooling winds into the structure during the summer months.
Figure 37: Cooling Effects (Summer Winds)
It
is possible within the process of architectural design to incorporate wind
elements that serve the best interests of the intended solution while excluding
those elements that may cause undue stress and discomfort for the intended
users.
The
manipulation of wind elements is only one component of the site aspects that
must be considered during the architectural design process.
Water
elements related to urban design carry an aesthetic consideration but they focus
mainly on storm water retention. Storm
water refers to both winter run-off and rainwater. As our cities expand, the current
infrastructure becomes too small to handle additional flow of water during peak
periods. It may not seem like a great
amount of rain may have fallen during a rainstorm (perhaps only 12 mm), but
that amount when collected from an entire subdivision can cause flooding and
spills.
The
current practice of urban design is to incorporate retention ponds into the
urban layout (suburban in some cases) to collect and retain this water until
such time as it can be siphoned off through controlled drainage or evaporation
occurs.
New
areas (Lakewood and Lakeridge) are being designed to incorporate the water
retention area as an aerated lake, contributing a public, social use as well as
a functional, operational aspect. This
technique has proven effective in areas of the City of Calgary (Lake Buenavista,
Lake Midnapore, Lake Sundance) where the lakes include beaches, boating, and
fishing; all located within the urban setting.
Figure 38: Lakeridge Subdivision,
Regina, Sask.
Water
elements are also used in building designs on both the interior and exterior
for functional and aesthetic purposes.
Moving or aerated water provides background noise (termed “white noise”)
within public spaces. White noise is a
means to deflect auditory perception, masking conversations between adjacent
groups and removing the emptiness often felt within large public spaces. Water elements also contribute to the
humidification (airborne moisture) of public spaces, alleviating the dry
climate experienced, particularly in Saskatchewan.
Figure 39: Queen Elizabeth Court, City
Hall, Regina
Water
elements can be included into architectural designs in several ways, such as:
Figure 40: Exterior Fountain, SPC,
Regina
The
proposed use, placement, and design of the water element are crucial to the
success within the space. Noise
qualities must be considered in order to properly select and design the water
feature. It is possible to adjust the
noise component based on the type of water element selected.
Water
is an essential component of the human existence. The most prevalent aspect of water included
in the design is that water must be kept in motion to prevent stagnation. The
same philosophy can be stated with regard to the human existence.
Water
can also be an effective destructive force related to structures and
landscaping. Our climate features water
(moisture) in all its forms (fog, rain, show, ice), each of which must be
carefully considered during the design process.
The
process of handling and manipulating rainwater, snow and ice is a design
element that can contribute to either the success of the design or its failure.
Features
for water management can play a role in the aesthetic of the design or the
design may in fact hide or remove these features from the end product. In both cases, a rational design decision
must be reached as to the nature of the resolution. This decision will then carry forward as one
of the many design choices made within the process.
6.0 URBAN DESIGN
The
other side of geographical analysis relevant to the curriculum involves the
study of urban design.
Civilizations
have settled in constructed environments since 6,000 BC as noted in Section
1.0, Architectural History of Western Civilization. The design, growth and evolution of these
settlements has taken on a character unique to the order of the time. Social
roles, spatial qualities and societal structure all play a part in the analysis
of the urban environment, yet we are all too often willing to accept the growth
of our cities unchallenged. This
willingness to abide by the social will, allowing for growth unchecked and
ad-hoc, has led our society to the point of excessiveness in land and energy
use.
To
allow for growth outward of our civic centres also allows for deterioration of
the centres themselves. This condition
is evident within the City of Regina as well a other major centres across
Canada an the United States. This
condition is also felt in Western European centres but not to the degree that
it has proliferated locally.
City Planning Models
City
planning has evolved through history in much the same fashion as architectural
design, albeit along a parallel, sometimes winding path. Kevin Lynch wrote in “Good City Form” (1981),
that there are essentially three categories (normative models) of city
planning.
Figure 41: Three City Planning Models
(1) The Cosmic Model: otherwise termed the “Holy City” type. This model plans the civic environment as an
interpretation of the universe and prevailing belief system (the gods). It is laid out as articulated expression of
power as seen in the idealistic plans of the Renaissance and Baroque
periods. Characteristic design features
include:
§
the
monumental axis,
§
the
enclosure of the environment complete with gates at the entries,
§
dominant
landmarks,
§
reliance
on a regular grid layout, and
§
spatial
organization by social hierarchy.
Figure 42: Palmanova, Italy (1593)
(2) The Practical Model: otherwise referred to as “the city as a
machine”. This model is factual,
functional, and analytical. Magic or
beliefs play no part in its formation. The
design features identified are characteristic of those found in factory towns,
colonial settlements, speculative grid towns of the United States, and Le
Corbusier’s theoretical ‘Radiant City’ plan.
The city in this model is “made up of small, autonomous,
undifferentiated parts, linked up to a great machine which in contrast has
clearly differentiated functions and motions”.
Figure 43: The Radiant City
(3) The Organic Model: otherwise known as the biological form. This model is in direct contrast to the
Practical Model. The organic model views
the city as a living entity rather than a functional machine. Characteristics ascribed to this model
include:
§
a
definite boundary enclosing (without walls or gates) an optimum size,
§
a
cohesive, indivisible internal societal structure, and
§
a
rhythmic behavior that seeks to maintain a balanced state, even though change
is inevitable.
Figure 44: The City of London, England
These
models provide merely the basis for urban review. In practicality, all cities
contain some components of each model, though one model may take
precedence. In every case (cosmic,
functional, or organic), our cities will be faced with periods of upheaval due
to philosophical change (cosmic), functional breakdown (practical), or urban
blight/disease (organic). These crisis
periods are the points of departure in city planning where new theory or
concepts are implemented to correct the growth or imbalance in the civic
system.
Figure 45: Karlsruhe, Germany (1715)
The
social concepts of spatial order related to the specific culture are present in
all schemes, depending on the time they originated. These social concepts corresponded with the
cultural hierarchy, centering wealth and power within the city with agrarian,
rural existence on or outside the borders.
The early plans derived by the hierarchy structure were fortified by the
presence of the leader (King) at the centre, the location where all would
gather during times of siege or distress.
Energy and Environmental Design:
The
industrial revolution created a major upheaval in the mobility of the urban
classes. Prior to this period, urban
excursions were limited to the rich escaping the city for villas or estates for
a brief respite. Industrialization laid
the groundwork for grid planning; simple, effective use of the landscape to suit
housing and urban demands of the new urban dwellers (the industrial workers).
Transportation
systems (trains and vehicles) further pushed the urban environment by allowing
for daily travel to work, accessing cheaper land for development, and
increasing the overall urban footprint.
This trend continues to date with the sprawl of suburbs, a nickname
given to developments outside the original urban core, thus creating sub-urban
developments.
This
overview of civic development is an intensely abbreviated summary of the growth
in civic environments. A total
assessment of civic growth must consider the historical, social, cultural,
lifestyle, education, and labour force of each location relative to its origins
and growth. Numerous texts and studies
have been completed relative to the city, too many to detail in this text. The underlying concept that we wish to
explore is the current trends at play in our civic environments relative to
architectural design and urban planning.
The
existing sprawl of our cities creates a reliance on transportation for almost
every aspect of our daily lives. Work
locations, shopping, schools, recreation, and even places of worship are
far-flung and removed from the residential locations. Low density residential development makes
mass transportation methods too costly to prove effective, thus the reliance on
the personal vehicle. The reliance on
personal vehicles generates associated concerns of increased pollution, energy
usage, loss of green space as roads chew up the landscape, and environmental
decay.
Energy
consumption and conservation are critical issues that we face today with regard
to architectural and urban design. The
issue of energy consumption arises from the fact that over 35% of end-use
energy is used in our buildings. Over
2/3 of this amount is used on heating our spaces. Buildings themselves through utility usage,
construction and materials, and generated waste, account for up to 40% of the
energy use in our society.[1]
Figure 46: North-West Regina
Energy
consumption within the built environment (residential, commercial,
institutional) is affected by many factors relative to the equipment (age and
efficiency) and the manner by which these buildings are maintained. Energy
consumption is directly affected by architectural design in many individual and
combined ways, including:
§
overall
building form,
§
building
type and occupancy,
§
density
of buildings on land area,
§
internal
building layout,
§
individual
building components (insulation, air barrier, etc.) and the method of
construction,
§
site
orientation (as discussed previously), and
§
landscaping
elements.
Architectural
design can alleviate many of the consumption factors through thoughtful
consideration of the issues and an honest response in the final design. The definition of ‘Honesty’ refers back to
the theoretical position of the architect as discussed in the introductory
chapter of Section 3.0, Art in Architecture.
Several
opportunities to provide a suitable response to energy consumption challenges
are noted below. These suggestions are merely items to consider while the
overall process of architectural design is underway. These suggestions will not necessarily be
applicable in every instance, and compromises will be generated depending on
the site specific, programmatic requirements, and individual mandate of each
design challenge.
Opportunities
to lessen the overall amount of energy consumed by commercial and institutional
buildings may be generated by:
(1) Site Selection:
§
Select
sites that allow the maximum exposure to the sun (solar access) for the
building area.
§
Attempt
to locate a site near major traffic generators and mass transit opportunities
in order to lower the requirement for vehicle usage.
§
Attempt
to locate a site that provides access to mass transit routes (lowering the
personal vehicle waste).
§
Re-use
or reclaim sites within the developed urban areas to make the best use of the
existing infrastructure (roads, sewer, water).
§
Design
the site to maximize the potential for the south yard, placing the design
solution north of the mid-way point.
§
Preserve
or plant landscaping that provides shelter yet allows solar access during the
cool seasons. (Coniferous trees on north
and west, deciduous trees on south and east).
§
Respect
the existing site drainage patterns (landscaping will assist in topsoil
retention).
§
Reduce
scattered land usage.
(2) Building Design Environment:
§
Incorporate
solar considerations in the design to allow for full solar access during the
cool seasons and shaded solar responses during the hot seasons.
§
Site
the design to make use of summer winds for cooling while protecting the design
from the cold winter wind patterns.
§
Site
the design solution to minimize vehicle travel within the site for occupants as
well as utility and services such as garbage collection, service vehicles,
courier and storage areas.
§
Use
landscaping to enhance the functions of solar and climatic influences, and to prevent
premature soil erosion.
Figure 47: Scarth Street, Regina, Sask.
(3) Building Design Elements:
§
Maximize
south face for solar gain.
§
Protect
north/northwest face from winter winds and snow accumulation.
§
Incorporate
air-lock entrance features to minimize heat loss.
§
Use
enhanced glazing systems to enhance the gain and protection aspects of the
south and north faces.
§
Incorporate
mass elements that can absorb and radiate heat through the day (masonry, stone,
concrete).
§
Ensure
construction provides an “air-tight” enclosure.
§
Coordinate
energy-efficient systems designs with mechanical and electrical engineers.
§
Provide
a compact layout through clear resolution of required spaces.
Energy
consumption and conservation related to urban design is another critical issue
to consider. Transportation systems use
over 25% of the total energy consumption expended. Over half of this energy is used up through
automobile usage, with at least one-third of this consumption related to urban
transportation movement alone.
Statistics related to urban transportation indicate that 90% of
automobile energy use is expended moving people, while only 10% is used to move
goods.[2] There may seem to be a lot of trucks moving
about the city but they account for a very small percentage of the expended
energy. It is the configurations of our
cities that have necessitated a major portion of the required urban
travel. Societal and cultural influences
carry some weight in this issue since we are known as a “vehicular society”,
however this influence is not as easily addressed as the civic layout
consideration.
Civic Environmental Design:
Civic
growth as illustrated earlier in this section can be categorized as one of
cosmic, practical, or organic. Our
current civic environments are typically a combination of practical and
organic, with the occasional cosmic influence.
This cosmic influence is minimal and sporadic, not considered further in
our analysis.
Figure 48: Regina, Saskatchewan
The
Practical Model is found in the gridiron, rectilinear street patterns of the
centre urban areas. The Organic Model is
found in the curved, cluster-type developments of the outlying expansion areas.
An interesting note is that the practical system was the original system, laid
out in typical fashion of its time when mankind enforced its principles on the
landscape, almost regardless of the terrain.
The
practical (gridiron) system represents the early days of civic planning. Streets are planned at right angles and could
be extended indefinitely over the landscape.
This system type was easy and efficient to establish on almost any
terrain. Utility installation was easy
as well as the street numbering system. The rectangular blocks were easy to
subdivide into development parcels. The
entire system seems to have a lot of positive aspects, however the inherent
flaws surfaced during the actual usage.
Figure 49: City of Regina Downtown District
Flaws
in this system include the fact that the layout does not adapt well to
irregular topography without land surface relocation. This system type also makes travel to a
diagonal point difficult. Any street in this system may be considered a heavy
traffic route which then requires increased artificial controls in terms of
lights, signage, blockage, and one-way use.
The implementation of controls within a street layout can cause
slow-downs in traffic flow, which will increase the time a vehicle is on the
road running, resulting in a subsequent waste of energy. There is a domino effect present whenever
controls or regulations are instituted within our urban development, especially
where energy consumption is concerned.
The
organic (cluster) system represents the more recent trend in urban design.
Streets are varied in width, depending on their designed usage according to the
intended traffic flow. Street types were categorized as:
(1) Arterial streets – fast moving
traffic designed for peak flow; the main roads (Albert Street, Victoria Avenue,
downtown). Widths vary from 80 feet to
120 feet.
(2) Collector streets – moderate
traffic speeds for varying flow. These
streets are intended to serve as the link between minor streets and arterial
streets (such as Hillsdale Street).
Widths are 60 feet to 80 feet.
(3) Minor streets – residential entry
roads that link the marginal streets to collectors. Minor streets are a part of the residential
or commercial zone, being developed for use.
These streets carry minimal to moderate traffic at low speeds within the
intended zone. Widths are 50 feet to 60
feet.
(4) Marginal access streets – minor
streets that are parallel or adjacent to the arterial or collector
streets. These streets provide access to
immediate properties only, linking onto the minor streets for urban access. Widths are ± 40 feet.
(5) Alleys / Laneways – these are the
back access roads seen mostly in older development areas. Current urban planning techniques include an
easement between properties at the back.
Newer developments have eliminated this access road entirely.
Figure 50: Organic Subdivision Layout
Organic
planning strategies have to come up with fixed boundaries to the development
since growth in a controlled manner cannot be extended like the gridiron system
can. The presence of these boundaries
limits development to a fixed area. Positive
aspects of organic (cluster) developments include:
§
Grouping
of development units allows for potential increase in socialization. (Refer to Section 5.0, Sociology and
Architecture).
§
Grouping
of developments allows for unused land areas to serve common uses (urban or
residential parks, green spaces, etc.).
§
Density
of building development remains consistent with practical (gridiron) system. Additional open area is created without
losing any developed lands.
§
Development
costs may be lower for utility installation and servicing.
§
Natural
drainage systems can be implemented much easier than in the practical system. The organic model can use the existing
topography as the initial indicator of the future layout.
Figure 51: Cluster Groupings
§
Road
systems can be narrowed to specifically suit the intended use. Since the border
is fixed (unlike unlimited expansion opportunity of practical system), the
potential for increased travel volume is minimal. Narrowing roads reduces the overall land
usage, resulting in less development costs and future servicing. Less asphalt area also means more area of
the natural topography can remain for drainage and green space.
§
Orientation
of the individual development sites is more varied than in the practical
system. This opportunity provides more
flexibility for the potential design solutions on each development site.
§
Open
areas within the organic (cluster) development may be used for storm water
retention ponds, thereby reducing the demands on existing systems.
Flaws
in the organic (cluster) model are present in several societal and
developmental areas. These flaws
include:
§
Scope
of the available development must be fixed at the outset, with no room for
growth.
§
Road
sizes (widths and traffic volumes) are predetermined so a resulting change in
population density (apartment, business block) will impact on traffic without
possible resolution except traffic control systems.
§
Orientation
while traveling in the development can often be confusing as the roads may be
running in multiple directions during travel.
§
Building
identification is not as easy as seen in the practical model.
§
Travel
is often less although accessing diagonal points may require circulating around
the development.
The
use of the organic (cluster) urban form is a recent concept in terms of civic
urban planning. Historically, urban
planning followed the example of the railroad line, laid out in a straight line
for maximum efficiency. The prairie
landscape was also parceled out in sections; a rectilinear concept imposing a
structured order on the landscape. Towns
that had opportunity and adjacent examples of natural landscape forms featuring
organic layouts remained true to the practical grid system in their planning.
Figure 52: Rural Saskatchewan
The
two methods of urban planning strategies can be used together, recognizing the
positive and negative influences they both bring to the civic environment. The main concept of urban design in this
regard is to provide energy-efficient planning that makes the best use of
available land while providing increased opportunities for architectural design
strategies.
Civic
development strategies are governed by each municipality. These governing bodies have to consider the
city as a whole, as well as each individual area, when developing a master plan
for growth and development. In order to
provide for an environmentally and user-friendly development, civic planning
should consider:
(1) Concentration: Encourage physically concentrated
developments for quick, easy access to a wide range of activities from the
functional (work, shopping) to recreational.
Concentration techniques will also increase the opportunity to develop
mass transit strategies, lessening the use of vehicle travel and thereby
lowering energy use.
(2) Variety: Allow for development of commercial
(business, retail), institutional (schools and churches), as well as
residential areas within each development zone. The requirement to travel is
lowered if the services desired are easily within reach.
(3) Mixed Use Activities: Allow for combinations of live, work, social
and institution environments within each development. A mixed-use area provides more opportunity
for variety and promotes greater concentration.
Figure 53: Carducci & Associates
Mixed-Use Proposal
(4) Pedestrian Environment: There must be opportunities and direct
pathways for pedestrians to promote bicycle and walking modes of travel, as
opposed to constantly driving around. A
pedestrian environment would require careful design in order to provide sun and
wind compensation. This category is
difficult to promote within our local climate.
(5) Orientation: Like Section 5.0, Sociology and Architecture,
urban developments need some form of orientation to gain a sense of your
location. This consideration can be
satisfied through the use of civic or local landmarks and clearly identified
pathways. This category relates to the
orientation and way-finding chapters of Section 5.0.
(6) Identity: Each development district requires an
identity to create a distinction from surrounding areas. Identity would be in the form of an image or
character style of the area, similar to the reference identity of the Cathedral
area in Regina, using a landmark as the identifier. Identity allows the inhabitants to be a part
of the larger development group, which in turn provides a sense of
belonging. Territory theory stems from
the sense of belonging and being a part of a larger group. These elements, as discussed relative to
architectural design in Section 5.0, also relate to urban design and planning
on a larger scale.
Civic
development strategies will provide for urban environments that are both energy
efficient and effective in their use. An
efficient, well-used urban area is a vibrant one, able to withstand changes
over time and nature as the city grows.
An area or district that does not resolve these issues will stagnate and
eventually deteriorate, possibly to the point where only massive redevelopment
will restore it to a usable state.
Criteria
for development of an energy-efficient development area include:
§
Compact
land use area creating the least possible spread on the topography.
§
Minimal
urban sprawl, strip mall, or pod development or under-utilized land.
§
Strong
controls on infill properties and new developments.
§
Closely
developed for places of live, work, shopping, recreation, and personal service
(schools, churches).
§
Well-developed
mass transit system to promote its use over the automobile.
§
Pedestrian
and bicycle friendly.
§
Varied
in building type and form to allow a multitude of choices and opportunities to
age in place.
§
Structures
designed to suit solar and climatic conditions.
§
Green
spaces are integrated throughout the community.
§
Natural
drainage is utilized with minimal impact on topography of the original area.
These
criteria cannot likely be applied universally over existing areas in the
city. The concepts noted should be
considered as our urban environment grows outward and changes within, in an
effort to improve the civic structure and associated lifestyles that we can
choose to live.
{A listing of new architectural
definitions provided by this component}
APPENDIX 'A'
List of Images
Reference tags:
A : Photo by Author
B : Buildings that Changed the World
C : Cost Effective Site Planning
D : Architecture: From Pre-History to Post-Modernism
T : The City Shaped
U : Urban Planning and Design Criteria
V : Vitruvius: 10 books on Architecture
|
Number |
Name |
Reference |
Page |
|
Cover |
City of Regina |
A |
--- |
|
1 |
Boboli Gardens, Florence, Italy |
A |
--- |
|
2 |
Los Angeles Development |
T |
12 |
|
3 |
Great Smokey Mountains, North Carolina |
Internet Image |
--- |
|
4 |
Landscaping and Climate |
Internet Image |
---- |
|
5 |
Jasper, Alberta |
A |
--- |
|
6 |
Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, England |
B |
10 |
|
7 |
G. Pompidou Centre, Paris |
B |
|
|
8 |
Kaufmann House, Racine, Wisconsin (Fallingwater) |
B |
159 |
|
9 |
Kaufmann House, Racine, Wisconsin (Fallingwater) |
B |
159 |
|
10 |
Lac Biernsee, Interlaken, Switzerland |
A |
--- |
|
11 |
Museum of Civilization |
|
|
|
12 |
Tuscan Landscape, Florence, Italy |
A |
--- |
|
13 |
Lumsden, Saskatchewan |
A |
--- |
|
14 |
Saskatchewan Map |
www.gov.sk.ca |
--- |
|
15 |
South-West Saskatchewan Topography |
A |
--- |
|
16 |
Raindrop Erosion |
Internet Image |
--- |
|
17 |
Slope Types |
U |
113 |
|
18 |
Sheet Erosion |
A |
--- |
|
19 |
Landscape Slope Elements |
A |
--- |
|
20 |
Hillside Retaining Wall |
A |
--- |
|
21 |
Roman Orientation |
V |
230 |
|
22 |
Orientation Considerations |
V |
230 |
|
23 |
Orientation and Landscaping |
C |
41 |
|
24 |
Place des Vosges, Paris, France |
A |
--- |
|
25 |
Solar Skyspace |
U |
123 |
|
|
Altitude / Azimuth Locations |
Internet Image |
--- |
|
26 |
Regina Altitude / Azimuth Diagrams |
Author |
--- |
|
27 |
Solar Considerations |
U |
121 |
|
28 |
Scarth Street Environment |
A |
--- |
|
29 |
St. Peter's Square, Rome |
D |
343 |
|
30 |
Prairie Landscape |
A |
--- |
|
31 |
Vitruvian Wind Diagram |
V |
166 |
|
32 |
Wind Orientation |
C |
46 |
|
33 |
Eco-Tower, Architecture Magazine |
Dec. 2002 Edition |
53 |
|
34 |
Wind Tunnel Testing |
Internet Image |
--- |
|
35 |
Primary Wind Control |
C |
47 |
|
36 |
Landform and Landscaping |
C |
41 |
|
37 |
Cooling Effects |
C |
47 |
|
38 |
Lakeridge Subdivision, Regina, Sask. |
A |
--- |
|
39 |
Queen Elizabeth Court, Regina, Sask |
A |
--- |
|
40 |
Exterior Fountain, Sask. Power Corporation, Regina |
A |
--- |
|
41 |
Three City Planning Models |
T |
15 |
|
42 |
Palmanova, Italy |
T |
19 |
|
43 |
The Radiant City (Modified Image) |
Internet Image |
--- |
|
44 |
The City of London |
D. Brown |
--- |
|
45 |
Karlsruhe, Germany |
T |
188 |
|
46 |
North-West Regina |
A |
--- |
|
47 |
Scarth Street, Regina |
A |
--- |
|
48 |
Regina City Map |
www.regina.ca |
--- |
|
49 |
City of Regina Downtown Satellite Image |
www.maps.google.ca |
--- |
|
50 |
Organic Subdivision |
C |
107 |
|
51 |
Cluster Groupings |
C |
55 |
|
52 |
Rural Saskatchewan |
A |
--- |
|
53 |
Mixed Use Development Character Sketch |
Internet Image |
--- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
APPENDIX 'B'
Bibliography
DeChiara, Joseph and Koppelman, Lee
Urban
Planning and Design Criteria
New York, NY, USA; Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Inc., 1982
Environment Canada, Lands Directorate
Planning
Land to Conserve Energy
Ottawa, Ontario; Land Use in Canada Series, No. 25, 1982
Kostof, Spiro
The
City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings through History
London, England; Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1991
Lynch, Kevin
The
Image of the City
Cambridge, Mass. USA; The MIT Press, 1960
National Association of House Builders
Cost
Effective Site Planning
Washington, DC, USA, 1976
Norberg-Schulz, Christian
Genius
Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture
(Copied on file in Author's archives)
Rowland, Ingrid D. and Thomas Noble Howe
Vitruvius
– Ten Books on Architecture
New York, USA; Cambridge University Press, 1999